- This is where Search Conduit causes the most problems for people, as uninstalling the software does not undo the. Okay, this looks like yours, so your.
- A place for pictures and photographs.
How to solve hang on logo, restarting, auto turn on internet connection, auto turn on WiFi connection, auto app installing, auto gone balance, pattern lock, screen lock.
Chapter 1
main()
{
TRISA = 0; // all PORTA pins output
PORTA = 0xff;
}
Retesting PORTA
1.Rebuild the project now.
2.Set the cursor on the TRISA assignment.
3.Execute a “Run to Cursor” command to skip all the compiler initialization just as we did before.
4.Execute a couple of single steps and...we have it!
Figure 1-6. MPLAB IDE Watch window detail; PORTA content has changed!
If all went well, you should see the content of PORTA change to 0x00FF, highlighted in the Watch window in red. Hello, World!
Our first choice of PORTA was dictated partially by the alphabetical order and partially by the fact that, on the popular Explorer16 demonstration boards, PORTA pins RA0 through RA7 are conveniently connected to 8 LEDs. So if you try to execute this example code on the actual demo board, you will have the satisfaction of seeing all the LEDs turn on, nice and bright.
Testing PORTB
To complete our lesson, we will now explore the use of one more I/O port, PORTB.
It is simple to edit the program and replace the two PORTA control register assignments with TRISB and PORTB. Rebuild the project and follow the same steps we did in the previous exercise and…you’ll get a new surprise. The same code that worked for PORTA does not work for PORTB!
Don’t panic! I did it on purpose. I wanted you to experience a little PIC24 migration pain. It will help you learn and grow stronger.
It is time to go back to the datasheet, and study in more detail the PIC24 pin-out diagrams. There are two fundamental differences between the 8-bit PIC microcontroller architecture and the new PIC24 architecture:
•Most of PORTB pins are multiplexed with the analog inputs of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) peripheral. The 8-bit architecture reserved PORTA pins primarily for this purpose—the roles of the two ports have been swapped!
The first flight
•With the PIC24, if a peripheral module input/output signal is multiplexed on an I/O pin, as soon as the module is enabled, it takes complete control of the I/O pin—independently of the direction (TRISx) control register content. In the 8-bit architectures, it was up to the user to assign the correct direction to each pin, even when a peripheral module required its use.
By default, pins multiplexed with “analog” inputs are disconnected from their “digital”input ports. This is exactly what was happening in the last example. All PORTB pins in the PIC24FJ128GA010 are, by default at power-up, assigned an analog input function; therefore, reading PORTB returns all 0s. Notice, though, that the output latch of PORTB has been correctly set although we cannot see it through the PORTB register. To verify it, check the contents of the LATB register instead.
To reconnect PORTB inputs to the digital inputs, we have to act on the analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) module inputs. From the datasheet, we learn that the special-function register AD1PCFG controls the analog/digital assignment of each pin.
Upper Byte: | |||||||||||||||||||
R/W-0 | R/W-0 | R/W-0 | R/W-0 | R/W-0 | R/W-0 | R/W-0 | R/W-0 | ||||||||||||
PCFG15 | PCFG14 | PCFG13 | PCFG12 | PCFG11 | PCFG10 | PCFG9 | PCFG8 | ||||||||||||
bit 15 | bit 8 | ||||||||||||||||||
Lower Byte: | |||||||||||||||||||
R/W-0 | R/W-0 | R/W-0 | R/W-0 | R/W-0 | R/W-0 | R/W-0 | R/W-0 | ||||||||||||
PCFG7 | PCFG6 | PCFG5 | PCFG4 | PCFG3 | PCFG2 | PCFG1 | PCFG0 | ||||||||||||
bit 7 | bit 0 | ||||||||||||||||||
bit 15-0 PCFG15:PCFG0: Analog Input Pin Configuration Control bits
1 = Pin for corresponding analog channel is configured in Digital mode; I/O port read enabled 0 = Pin configured in Analog mode; I/O port read disabled, A/D samples pin voltage
Figure 1-7. AD1PCFG: ADC port conÞguration register.
Assigning a 1 to each bit in the AD1PCGF special-function register will accomplish the task. Our new and complete program example is now:
#include <p24fj128ga010.h>
main() | ||
{ | ||
TRISB = | 0; | // all PORTB pins output |
AD1PCFG = | 0xffff; | // all PORTB pins digital |
PORTB = | 0xff; | |
} |
This time, compiling and single-stepping through it will give us the desired results.
Chapter 1
Figure 1-8. Hello Embedded World Project.
Post-flight briefing
After each flight, there should be a brief review. Sitting on a comfortable chair in front of a cool glass of water, it’s time to reflect with the instructor on what we have learned from this first experience.
Writing a C program for a PIC24 microcontroller can be very simple, or at least no more complicated than the assembly-language equivalent. Two or three instructions, depending on which port we plan to use, can give us direct control over the most basic tool available to the microcontroller for communication with the rest of the world: the I/O pins.
Also, there is nothing the C30 compiler can do to read our mind. Just like in assembly, we are responsible for setting the correct direction of the I/O pins. And we are still required to study the datasheet and learn about the small differences between the 8-bit PIC microcontrollers we might be familiar with and the new 16-bit breed.
As high-level as the C programming language is touted to be, writing code for an embedded-control device still requires us to be intimately familiar with the finest details of the hardware we use.
The first flight
Notes for assembly experts
If you have difficulties blindly accepting the validity of the code generated by the MPLAB C30 compiler, you might find comfort in knowing that, at any given point in time, you can decide to switch to the “Disassembly Listing” view. You can quickly inspect the code generated by the compiler, as each C source line is shown in a comment that precedes the segment of code it generated.
Figure 1-9. Disassembly Listing Window.
You can even single-step through the code and do all the debugging from this view, although I strongly encourage you not to do so (or limit the exercise to a few exploratory sessions as we progress through the first chapters of this book). Satisfy your curiosity, but gradually learn to trust the compiler. Eventually, use of the C language will give a boost to your productivity and increase the readability and maintainability of your code.
As a final exercise, I encourage you to open the Memory Usage Gauge window—select “View→ Memory Usage Gauge”.
Figure 1-10. MPLAB IDE Memory Usage Gauge window.
Chapter 1
Don’t be alarmed! Even though we wrote only three lines of code in our first example and the amount of program memory used appears to already be up to 300+ bytes, this is not an indication of any inherent inefficiency of the C language. There is a minimum block of code that is always generated (for our convenience) by the C30 compiler. This is the initialization code (c0) that we mentioned briefly before. We will get to it, in more detail, in the following chapters as we discuss variables initialization, memory allocation and interrupts.
Notes for PIC MCU experts
Those of you who are familiar with the PIC16 and PIC18 architecture will find it interesting that most PIC24 control registers, including the I/O ports, are now 16 bits wide. Looking at the PIC24 datasheet, note also how most peripherals have names that look very similar, if not identical, to the 8-bit peripherals you are already familiar with. You will feel at home in no time!
Notes for C experts
Certainly we could have used the printf function from the standard C libraries. In fact the libraries are readily available with the MPLAB C30 compiler. But we are targeting embedded-control applications and we are not writing code for multigigabyte workstations. Get used to manipulating low-level hardware peripherals inside the PIC24 microcontrollers. A single call to a library function,
like printf, could have added several kilobytes of code to your executable. Don’t assume a serial port and a terminal or a text display will always be available to you. Instead, develop a sensibility for the “weight” of each function and library you use in light of the limited resources available in the embed- ded-design world.
Tips and tricks
The PIC24FJ family of microcontrollers is based on a 3V CMOS process with a 2.0V to 3.6V operating range. As a consequence, a 3V power supply (Vdd) must be used and this limits the output voltage of each I/O pin when producing a logic high output. However, interfacing to 5V legacy devices and applications is really simple:
•To drive a 5V output, use the ODCx control registers (ODCA for PORTA, ODCB for PORTB and so on…) to set individual output pins in open-drain mode and connect external pull-up resistors to a 5V power supply.
•Digital input pins instead are already capable of tolerating up to 5V. They can be connected directly to 5V input signals.
Be careful with I/O pins that are multiplexed with analog inputs though—they cannot tolerate voltages above Vdd.
The first flight
Exercises
If you have the Explorer16 board:
1.Use the ICD2 Debugging Checklist to help you prepare the project for debugging.
2.To test the PORTA example, connect the Explorer16 board and check the visual output on LED0–7.
3.To test the PORTB example, connect a voltmeter (or DMM) to pin RB0 and watch the needle move as you single-step through the code.
Books
•Kernighan, B. and Ritchie, D., “The C Programming Language,” Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
When you read or hear a programmer talk about the “K&R,” they mean this book!
Also known as “the white book,” the C language has evolved since the first edition of this book was published in 1978! The second edition (1988) includes the more recent ANSI C standard definitions of the language, which is closer to the standard the MPLAB C30 compiler adheres to (ANSI90).
•“Private Pilot Manual,” Jeppesen Sanderson, Inc., Englewood, CO.
This is “the” reference book for every student pilot. Highly recommended, even if you are just curious about aviation.
Links
•http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/C_Programming
This is a Wiki-book on C programming. It’s convenient if you don’t mind doing all your reading online. Hint: look for the chapter called “A taste of C” to find the omnipresent “Hello World!” exercise.
C H A P T E R 2
A loop in the pattern
In This Chapter
while loops
An animated simulation Using the Logic Analyzer
The “pattern” is a standardized rectangular circuit, where each pilot flies in a loop. Every airport has a pattern of given (published) altitude and position for each runway. Its purpose is to organize traffic around the airport and its working is not too dissimilar to how a roundabout works. All airplanes are supposed to circle in a given direction consistent with the prevailing wind at the moment. They all fly at the same altitude, so it is easier to visually keep track of each other’s position. They all talk on the radio on the same frequencies, communicating with a tower if there is one, or among one another
with the smaller airports. As a student pilot, you will spend quite some time, especially in the first few lessons, flying in the pattern with your instructor to practice continuous sequences of landings immediately followed by take-offs (touch-and-goes), refining your newly acquired skills. As a student of embedded programming, you will have a loop of your own to learn—the main loop.
Flight plan
Embedded-control programs need a framework, similar to the pilots’ pattern, so that the flow of code can be managed. In this lesson, we will review the basics of the loops syntax in C and we’ll also take the opportunity to introduce a new peripheral module: the 16-bit Timer1. Two new MPLAB® SIM features will be used for the first time: the “Animate” mode and the “Logic Analyzer.”
Preflight checklist
For this second lesson, we will need the same basic software components installed (from the attached CD-ROM and/or the latest versions, available for download from Microchip’s website) and used before, including:
•MPLAB IDE, Integrated Development Environment
•MPLAB SIM, software simulator
•MPLAB C30 compiler (Student Version)
Chapter 2
We will also reuse the “New Project Set-up” checklist to create a new project with the MPLAB IDE:
1.Select “Project→Project Wizard”, to start creating a new project.
2.Select the PIC24FJ128GA010 device, and click Next.
3.Select the MPLAB C30 compiler suite and click Next.
4.Create a new folder and name it “Loop.” name the project “A Loop in the Pattern,” and click Next.
5.There is no need to copy any source files from the previous lessons; click Next once more.
6.Click Finish to complete the Wizard set-up.
This will be followed by the “Adding Linker Script file” checklist, to add the linker script “p24fj128ga010.gld” to the project. It can typically be found in the MPLAB IDE installation directory “C:/Program Files/Microchip/”, within the subdirectory “MPLAB C30/support/gld/”.
After completing the “Create New File and Add to Project” checklist:
7.Open a new editor window.
8.Type the main program header:
//
// A loop in the pattern
//
9.Select “Project→AddNewFiletoProject”, to save the file as: “loop.c” and have it automatically added to the project source files list.
10.Save the project.
The flight
One of the key questions that might have come to mind after working through the previous lesson is “What happens when all the code in the main() function has been executed?” Well, nothing really happens, or at least nothing that you would not expect. The device will reset, and the entire program will execute again…and again.
In fact, the compiler puts a special software reset instruction right after the end of the main() function code, just to make sure. In embedded control we want the application to run continuously, from the moment the power switch has been flipped on until the moment it is turned off. So, letting the program run through entirely, reset and execute again might seem like a convenient way to arrange the application so that it keeps repeating as long as there is “juice.” This option might work in a few limited cases, but what you will soon discover is that, running in this “loop.” you develop a “limp.” Reaching the end of the program and executing a reset takes the microcontroller back to the very beginning to execute all the initialization code, including the c0 code segment briefly mentioned in the previous lesson. So, as short as the initialization part might be, it will make the loop very unbalanced. Going through all the special-function register and global-variables initializations each time is probably not necessary and it will certainly slow down the application. A better option is to design an application “main loop.” Let’s review the most basic loop-coding options in C first.
A Loop in the pattern
While loops
In C there are at least three ways to code a loop; here is the first—the while loop:
while ( x)
{
// your code here...
}
Anything you put between those two curly brackets ({}) will be repeated for as long as the logic expression in parenthesis ( x) returns a true value. But what is a logic expression in C?
First of all, in C there is no distinction between logic expressions and arithmetic expressions. In C, the Boolean logic TRUE and FALSE values are represented just as integer numbers with a simple rule:
•FALSE is represented by the integer 0.
•TRUE is represented by any integer except 0.
So 1 is true, but so are 13 and -278. In order to evaluate logic expressions, a number of logic operators are defined, such as:
|| the logic OR operator, && the logic AND operator,
!the logic NOT operator.
These operators consider their operands as logical (Boolean) values using the rule mentioned above, and they return a logical value. Here are some trivial examples:
(when a = 17 and b = 1, or in other words they are both true)
( a || b) | is true, |
( a && b) | is true |
( !a) | is false |
There are, then, a number of operators that compare numbers (integers of any kind and floating-point values, too) and return logic values. They are:
the “equal-to” operator; notice it is composed of two equal signs to distinguish it from the “assignment” operator we used in the previous lesson,
!= the “NOT-equal to” operator,
>the “greater-than” operator,
>= the “greater-or-equal to” operator,
<the “less-than” operator,
<= the “less-than-or-equal to” operator. Here are some examples:
assuming a = 10
( a | > 1) | is true |
(-a | >= 0) | is false |
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Bigfoot
We have all heard the stories about a large, hairy creature running around in the woods late at night. People have different names for this creature, but famously, he is known as Bigfoot. For those who might still be living under a rock, Bigfoot is a cryptid creature, meaning his existence has yet to be proven by anyone. He has been spotted around many parts of North America and sightings continue to this day. One only has to go online to search for these sightings and even read stories and see pictures that people have posted.
For someone who doubts Bigfoot is real, it seems crazy that a creature this size, being spotted so often, continues to exist without being caught. However, to those who do believe, they are convinced without any sort of doubt that these creatures do indeed roam the woods. Even a good amount of crypto-zoologists believe that these creatures have been running around.
Mermaids
When talking about this type of mermaid, we aren’t talking about Ariel from The Little Mermaid. These creatures are much different and have completely adapted to their environment. The first mention of a mermaid in history dates back to 1000 B.C. So, in other words, they have been around for quite some time. Tales have existed for centuries, but has anyone actually seen one? People claim to all over the world. Some scientists even believe that us humans may have come from some type of mermaid creature. It certainly adds to the theory that we came from the ocean, so it’s not too crazy of a stretch, right? After all, the ocean is a very big place with many spots to hide.
Werewolves
This picture obviously shows a jogger. But what is does prove is that people still believe. To most people, it is known that werewolves aren’t real, but that doesn’t dissuade others from thinking the mythical beasts exist. Some people are scared that if they aren’t careful, a werewolf could come tearing into them.
Throughout history, Werewolves have been complex, not simply beasts with fangs. Werewolves are known as mythological humans who can transform into a wolf or a wolf/human hybrid form. Once the shape-shifter has changed, they have extremely fast speeds, quick reflexes and are able to knock down pretty much anything in their way. Apart from silver, not much is known to stop these creatures. However, humans have claimed to have stopped them more than once after they enter a village and take down numerous innocent souls.
Aliens
While many people may argue that aliens are mythical creatures, it’s obvious to many UFO groups that aliens are very real. In fact, we have seen some very interesting and exciting images over the past two decades that would suggest there is life on other planets. Many of these sightings and experiences have been debunked by professionals. Often times they’re considered a terrible episode of mental illness, or a military drone in the sky. But such excuses can’t always be blamed. Sometimes it’s just too real. There are even religions like Scientology, that foster alien belief. And just like Bigfoot, aliens can be searched for endlessly online.
Wild Men
The concept of a wild man is pretty much as simple as it sounds. They’re men who, according to certain professionals, became feral and grew large amounts of body hair as fur. However, these beings do not resemble apes so much as they do us humans. There are many theories as to why these wild men exist, but no one has confirmed their existence or origin. While it may be a very strange and unsettling idea to picture a half naked and hairy man running around in the woods, it’s something you will have to consider for the moment. Some researchers believe that the cryptoids are results of a genetic mutation in certain humans. Perhaps something was triggered and it made them this way. Either way, if there ever is a wild man discovered, it would be a sight of wonder for the world.
Kraken
For those who might be lacking in the knowledge of ships capsizing due to being taken down by a giant tentacle monster, let me clear up a few things about this mythical beast’s past. The stories of the Kraken go as far back as ancient times when the Greeks were trying to navigate the seas. As the years progressed, people would tell stories of seeing a giant monster. Some even reported that the creature was mistaken for an island due to its large size. Other accounts depict the creature with large tentacles, able to reach to the highest mast of a ship. As history moves forward, the accounts depict the creature dwindling down in size, but still large enough to bring fright into the hearts of sailors. Even to this day, there are accounts of large creatures in the deepest depths of the ocean. Of course, we have those who swear by their lives that the creature is real.
Korrigan
If you have ever been one to believe in fairies and gnomes, then this mythical creature might interest you. The Korrigan are considered by many to be a beautiful fairylike creature who hid in rope structures in trees. Others claim they are evil and terrible dwarfs that could be found dancing playfully around water fountains. According to the latter sources, the dwarfs would place magical charms on their victims. Not long after the charm had taken affect, the dwarfs would kill their prey. If there were any children about, you can be rest assured that they would steal them, and take them away forever. The mythical tale of these creatures comes from a place in the northwest part of France known as Brittany. It is a cultural region full of wonderful and mystifying stories. One can never really be sure if these tales are true or not. But, for those who believe in the tales and legends of the Korrigan, it is not a joking matter by any means.
Wendigo
The legend of the Wendigo is an old one. Long ago, the Algonquian tribes flourished around parts of the Atlantic coast as well as parts of Canada and Hudson Bay. The Algonquians are currently considered the most extensive tribes in North America, with numerous members still speaking the Algonquian language. The tribes had many interesting and enticing stories throughout their culture. However, one of the stories always seems to stick out and strike everyone’s attention. Many people were told of a creature known as Wendigo. This being was considered highly dangerous and appeared to be part man, part monster. It was almost zombie-like. The Wendigo is said to feast upon human flesh. It was said that if a man had eaten human flesh, they were in danger of becoming a Wendigo. Many people believe this was just the tribe’s way of stopping the cannibalism cases in the area, but not everyone agrees. Many today talk of the beast and believe it truly exists.
Mothman
Many people have said that the Mothman is simply a hoax. But the first sighting of the Mothman wasn’t exactly false. At least, the people of Point Pleasant, West Virginia, never thought so. On November 15th, 1966, a man by the name of Roger Scarberry came rushing into the Mason county courthouse to report something he and his friends had seen. The deputy at the time, Millard Halstead, sat down with them and listened. Scarberry stated that he was driving down a road with his friends near a nature preserve when one of them pointed at something. They stopped in front of a factory and checked it out. What they saw were two red eyes glaring at them in the dark. Those red eyes were part of a seven foot tall creature with wings. Scarberry and his friends ran down the road and drove the car to escape the creature, but it kept up with the vehicle until they got to the courthouse. That wasn’t the last sighting of the Mothman. People all over Point Pleasant reported sightings of the creature as well. Many people now believe that it may have been a precursor, a warning sign for bad things to come. Today, there are still accounts of the creature being sighted just before major disasters and tragic events. Certain people believe it comes for a reason, while others are simply terrified by the thought of it.
The Jersey Devil
The Jersey Devil is a tale that has been around for centuries. Some say that the creature is a product of the devil himself, and that the woman who birthed him placed a curse on the child. It’s all just hearsay until things start going bump in the night.
The story that sparked the famous legend goes back to the 18th century when a woman, by the name of Mother Leeds, proclaimed something ghastly: “Let this one be a devil,” she said as she was giving birth to her 13th child. The curse came true and out came a creature with hooves, horns and wings (seriously?). The creature moved around the room, killing all of the midwives. After it finished them off, the creature flew off. Almost 200 years later, it resurfaced. In January of 1909, strange footprints on the roof of many people’s homes were reported. The terror was so intense that various mills and schools were closed down. Again in 1960, merchants offered $10K to anyone who could capture it. Of course, no one stepped up to the job. Even today, reports of the Jersey Devil circulate.
Lizard Man
For almost 30 years, Bishopville, Scape Ore Swamp, South Carolina, has been experiencing sightings of what appears to be an actual lizard man. Now, when first hearing something like this, your first thought is to laugh. However, many different people have reported seeing the same type of creature throughout the swamp. The first sighting happened in 1988 when a man stopped on the side of a road. While changing a flat tire in the middle of the night, he claims that the creature started chasing him. Since then there have been reports of something that stands about 7 feet tall, with green scaly skin and glowing red eyes. In 2015 a picture of the lizard man surfaced. The woman who captured it claimed that the photo was real. While the photo does leave something to be desired, it’s nonetheless a supposed picture of the creature. However, this isn’t the only picture. There are plenty of different sightings that have been posted in videos online as well.
Ahool
If you’re thinking of taking a trip to the Island of Java, in Indonesia, don’t forget to go on the hunt for one of the largest and scariest flying creatures thought to exist. It is known as the Ahool. The name comes from the noise it makes when letting out a howl or screech. With a large core, and big eyes, it’s shaped like a giant bat, with long flat arms and a wingspan of an astonishing 12 feet. The most famous of reports come from a naturalist in 1925 named Ernest Bartels. Ernest said he saw the creature fly over head when hiking in the Salek Mountains. He would see the creature again flying over his hut, screaming in the night. Many people in the area certainly believe his claims.
Loch Ness Monster
In case you’ve forgotten about the mythical lake beast that has been swimming the waters of Loch Ness, let me remind you. It’s obvious that so many claimed this creature to be real, but why? The first picture of the Loch Ness monster was taken in 1933, well before the camera had made great advances towards zoom and high resolution. Having said that, when the first picture was captured, it wasn’t very easy to make out the mysterious form in the water. To this day, people still believe that it was simply a log or some type of drift wood floating through the lake. Others believe that there really is something in the waters. But the most intriguing thing about it all is that there is still no physical evidence to suggest that it truly does exist.
Pukwudgie
Following another group of mischievous and evil creatures, the Pukwudgie were known by many Algonquian tribes to be little people who run about in the forest. If the tribes weren’t careful, the Pukwudgie would steal children away in the dead of night. The Algonquian people believed strongly in this creature and they didn’t take its existence lightly. However, there were some tribes who believed that the creatures were harmless unless treated with disrespect. Even to this day, they are known to many Algonquian people as dangerous and a group of beings. They are believed to be about knee high, and their name translates to “person of the wilderness”. They are said to smell very sweet and have a strong association with flowers. The Pukwudgie allegedly have magical powers in which they can even turn invisible. Wait until Papa Smurf hears about this.
Vampires
In recent years, we have molded the image of the vampire into a creature of wonder and torture. A fascinating monster that makes the world crave the gift of immortality. But that wasn’t always how the vampire made its living. Where the legend of the blood sucking creature started isn’t entirely known. However, many people pin most of the fear in today’s world on Bram Stoker, a famous Irish author during the late 1800’s who wrote the novel known as Dracula. The story’s main antagonist, Dracula, is a vampire. A creature that must drink blood in order to survive. This is the same theme for most of the vampire legends around the world. However, some people state that some vampires feed of the energy of others. The vampire exists all around the world, and yes, people do still believe in them. There are even individuals who believe that they are vampires themselves.
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